Daylight saving time: origins and history

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Africa, Arizona, Asia, Australia, Benjamin Franklin, Canada, conserving fuel, Daylight Saving Bill, daylight saving time, daylight time, George Hudson, Germany, Greenwich, Hawaii, Leek, lifestyle, New Zealand, oil crises, Queensland, railways, Robert Pearce, Scotland, single double summer time, South America, Staffordshire, The Waste of Daylight, UK, US, Western Australia, William Willett, World War I, World War II

I posted the following article on daylight saving time on LinkedIn a few days ago …

Nearly everyone has a view on daylight saving time. They either hate it or they’re okay with it. The views of those who hate it are usually stronger than those who like it. But how did it all start? The idea for daylight saving first came from Benjamin Franklin in 1784 when he recommended that Parisians go to bed earlier and get up earlier, thereby using more natural light and saving on candles. He didn’t suggest changing the clock. Nor did he use the term ‘daylight saving’. Standard time was still best part of a century away, let alone daylight saving time. 

It was the railways that forced the introduction of standard time in the 19^th century. Trains had to run to a set timetable rather than local time which differed slightly from one town to the next. Railway companies in the UK decided to use Greenwich time which had been used for navigation and astronomy since 1675. Then the US came up with uniform time zones for its railroads. Nearly everyone in both countries and many other nations soon followed railway time. Governments caught up later, eventually legislating for standard time. 

Before long, there were proposals to shift the clock forward to take advantage of extra daylight late in the day for gardening, cricket and other activities, and to save on artificial light. The first person to suggest this was New Zealand postal clerk George Hudson in 1895. He advocated a two hour clock change in the warmer months and called the scheme seasonal time. But there wasn’t much interest and he didn’t pursue it.  

Ten years later, English builder William Willett began developing a plan to shift some of the early morning daylight to later in the day to allow people more exercise and recreation and to save power. He was relentless in his efforts to promote his plan and get it accepted, writing to all politicians and hundreds of businesses and councils. He produced 19 editions of his booklet, The Waste of Daylight, and toured the land promoting his scheme, all at his own expense. He got a lot of support but also plenty of opposition from farmers, international traders, some other businesses, media, railways and scientists. 

The term daylight saving was probably coined by Robert Pearce, member for Leek, Staffordshire, who had the first bill for the scheme, the Daylight Saving Bill, in 1908. After eight years of parliamentary bills, daylight saving finally became a reality in 1916 in the middle of World War I, not first in the UK but in Germany. The primary reason countries adopted the measure was to save fuel for the war effort and by 1918, 27 countries on both sides of the war were using it although Australia had already abandoned it in 1917. Many discarded the scheme after the war. Only 14 countries still had daylight saving in 1922. 

In the interwar period, daylight saving time in the US and Canada was up to the states/provinces, counties, and cities and towns, starting one of the most chaotic periods of daylight saving ever. In many areas, a state might legislate for either standard or daylight time while counties and cities often did the opposite. Businesses and individuals would end up choosing for themselves. Many court cases were fought over trying to decide the time. In some places, most factories, shops and local transport might be on daylight saving time and most churches, schools, banks and long distance trains on standard time. People in the same building were often on different times as were people in the same household with the father’s employer using daylight saving, the children’s school on standard time and the mother on both times.  

World War II saw many countries take up daylight saving time again to save energy. Sixty-two nations had it in 1942, including Australia. The number fell away to 13 in 1950, 14 in 1960 and 16 in 1970. Clock chaos returned in postwar US until daylight saving went national in 1967. The oil crises of the 1970s meant 48 countries had daylight saving by 1980, increasing to 75 in 1990. The main reason for daylight saving changed from conserving fuel to lifestyle with many people enjoying lighter evenings for shopping, recreation and sport. A total of 63 countries put clocks forward in 2016, down from 67 in 2000 and 2010. A number of Asian, African and South American countries have dropped out in recent decades. 

Controversies continue with the measure. In broad terms, city people like daylight saving and rural people don’t. In the US, all states except Hawaii and most of Arizona have the scheme although about half the states had bills in their legislatures in 2015 or 2016 seeking exemption from daylight saving. None has been passed so far. In recent years, most Britons have wanted single double summer time although no bill has got through both houses with Scotland being a sticking point. Australia seems very unlikely to ever have national daylight saving time again as Queensland and Western Australia are opposed to the scheme although the issue keeps coming up in both states. 

My new book on daylight saving time, The Great Daylight Saving Time Controversy, is now available at Amazon (https://www.amazon.com/dp/B06Y2R5KQ7), Kobo, Apple and Google.

The Great Daylight Saving Time Controversy

Tags

Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Benjamin Franklin, Brazil, calendars, Canada, clocks, daylight saving, daylight saving time, double summer time, Europe, Harley Staggers, John Steer, New Zealand, North America, Robert Garland, South America, standard time, summer time, Tasmania, Thomas Sidey, United Kingdom, United States, William Willett

My latest ebook, The Great Daylight Saving Time Controversy, has just been published by Australian eBook Publisher. It’s available at the various Amazon sites, Kobo, Apple and Google. See links below (Amazon links come up as images; the first one is the Australian site and the second one is the US site).

The book examines the origins of daylight saving, including the historical development of calendars, clocks, standard time, and the idea of changing the clock to give more daylight late in the day. It looks at the history of daylight saving in every country that has ever used the measure. It also analyses daylight saving in each state of the US, Australia and Brazil, and each Canadian province.

It features many intriguing and often prolonged battles between advocates and critics of daylight saving in countries around the world, as well as lighter moments. It highlights the determination of daylight saving time champions such as the UK’s William Willett, the US’s Robert Garland and Harley Staggers, New Zealand’s Thomas Sidey and Tasmania’s John Steer. It delves into the chaotic daylight saving situations that emerged, notably in the US and Canada, but also elsewhere. Every country and sometimes each state has a different and usually controversial story to tell.

See the contents page of the ebook below. Length is about 400 pages in Word/pdf format.

Contents:

Preface

Part I: Origins of daylight saving time

1   Calendar chaos

2   Counting the hours

3   Benjamin Franklin’s humour

4   Railways impose their time

5   William Willett’s dream

Part II: Daylight saving in UK and Europe

6   Wartime imperatives

7   United Kingdom sticks with daylight saving

8   UK’s single double summer time saga

9   Western Europe well ahead of the sun

10  Mixed feelings in rest of Europe

Part III: Daylight saving in North America

11  United States adopts measure late

12  Daylight saving mayhem

13  What’s the time? You choose

14  National daylight saving again

15  Canadian clock chaos

16  Saving daylight in deserts and on tropical islands

Part IV: Daylight saving in Australia and NZ

17  Apple Isle leads the way

18  Southern states in and out of sync

19  Contentious in the Sunshine State

20  Daylight saving sets in the west

21  The long road to daylight saving across the ditch

Part V: Daylight saving in the rest of the world

22  Asian countries opting out

23  No longer popular in South America

24  Never favoured in Africa

25  Antarctica: Daylight saving without daylight

Future of daylight saving time

Notes

Appendix: Daylight saving by country and state by year

Links:

https://geo.itunes.apple.com/us/book/the-great-daylight-saving-time-controversy/id1224081657?mt=11

https://www.kobo.com/au/en/ebook/the-great-daylight-saving-time-controversy

https://books.google.com.au/books?id=kpmbDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22great+daylight+saving+time+controversy%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Publisher:

http://www.australianebookpublisher.com.au/

 

Health benefits of blueberries

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antioxidants, Australia, berries, blueberries, diabetes, Europe, fiber, health benefits, manganese, memory, New Zealand, North America, South Africa, South America, Turkey, vitamin C, vitamin K

(originally published to Bubblews writing site, now gone)

Blueberries are native to North America and are also now grown in a number of European countries, Turkey, South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. They are loaded with antioxidants and other nutrients, including vitamin K, manganese, vitamin C and fiber.  

One study found that consumption of blueberries by older people improved memory and slowed down or stopped the deterioration of mental processes, although participants consumed large quantities of the berries. Another study found that blueberries helped blood sugar regulation in people with type 2 diabetes.  

Research has shown that eating blueberries improves antioxidant defences in the cardiovascular system, improves the nervous system, the digestive tract, and even muscle damage. Other studies have shown benefits of consuming blueberries for inflammation, depression, blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Tests on animals have shown better eye health, reduced risk of cancer, and less brain damage after stroke. 

I eat a small punnet of blueberries on the weekend in breakfasts of yoghurt and other fruit.

 

Uruguay

Tags

Amerindian, armbands, Blancos, Broad Front, Cathedral Hill, Catholic, Charrua, chivito, climate, Colorados, communication, culture, economy, foot and mouth disease, Football World Cup, geography, government, grappamiel, Guarani, history, Holy Grail, Italian, literacy, meat, Mestizo, Montevideo, mountains, Movement of National Liberation, Oriental Republic of Uruguay, parrillada, Partido Blanco, Partido Colorado, pasta, people, petroleum, politics, Portuguese, Protestant, reform, religion, river where the painted birds live, roads, South America, Spanish, tourism, transport, Tupamaros, unemployment, Uruguay, water

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Uruguay is the second smallest country in South America after Suriname. About half of its population of 3.5 million live in the capital city of Montevideo and its metropolitan area. The country is located on the east side of the continent along the Atlantic Ocean. It borders Brazil to the north, and Argentina to the west and southwest. The nation’s official name is the Oriental Republic of Uruguay as it is east of the Uruguay River and the Rio de la Plata or River Plate that separate it from Argentina. Uruguay means “river where the painted birds live” in the Guarani indigenous language. There are many other interesting facts about Uruguay.

Geography and climate

Most of the country consists of plains and rolling hills. Four river basins empty into the Atlantic. The highest mountain is the rocky and treeless Cerro Catedral, or Cathedral Hill, at an altitude of just 1,685 feet. An ongoing border dispute with Brazil relating to islands and waterways on the northern coast has not affected diplomatic relations between the two countries. About 89 per cent of arable land is used for cattle and sheep and 7 per cent is under crop. Uruguay has a temperate climate with few extremes. A lack of mountains makes it windy, especially in winter and spring, and the weather can be quite changeable. Storms are common in summer.

History

The Guarani and the Charrua are the indigenous people of Uruguay. The Spanish settled in the area in the 16th century and the Portuguese in the 17th, setting off various disputes between the two groups. The country gained its independence from Spain in the 1820s. By the 1830s, the Charrua had integrated with the Spanish and the Guarani, or been killed. Two parties that fought an ongoing battle from the late 1830s to 1870 were the Colorados, or the Reds, representing Montevideo business interests and the Blancos, or the Whites, who looked after the agricultural community. Members were identified by the color of their armbands; the city group initially wore blue armbands but changed to red as blue faded in the sun. Despite the fighting, tens of thousands of Europeans migrated to Uruguay during this period, banks opened, rail and canals were built, and exports rose, assisted by the natural harbor.

A group called the Tupamaros started robbing banks and shops in the early 1960s to give to the poorer neighborhoods. The US Office of Public Safety assisted local police who were allegedly taught how to torture suspects. Finally the army defeated the Tupamaros and another group, the Movement of National Liberation, in the 1970s. Uruguay had the highest per capita number of political prisoners of any country at that time. The torture continued until military rule ended in 1984 and various economic and social reforms were introduced.

People

About 88 per cent of Uruguay’s population are European, mainly Spanish and Italian, but from many other countries too. A further 6 per cent are Mestizo, or of mixed European and Amerindian heritage, 4 per cent are of African descent, and 2 per cent of Asian background. About 54 per cent are Roman Catholic, 11 per cent are Protestant, 9 per cent are believers without affiliation, and 26 per cent have no religion. Uruguay is South America’s most secular country and the majority of the population are regarded as not being strongly religious. Uruguay has a high literacy rate at 97 per cent and has a large urban middle class. About 600,000 people emigrated during the country’s dark days in the 1970s and 1980s.

Culture

Uruguayans eat a lot of meat. The national dishes are a beef platter called ‘parrillada’ and a large steak sandwich known as ‘chivito.’ Pasta is also very popular. ‘Grappamiel,’ made of alcohol and honey, is the national drink. The Guarani indigenous language is one of the official languages, along with Spanish, and is spoken by 88 per cent of residents. Half of the rural population speak only Guarani. It is the only indigenous language in the Americas where nearly all speakers are not indigenous. Uruguay hosted the first Football World Cup in 1930, beating Argentina in the final, and won it again in 1950.

Economy

Economic reforms from the mid 1980s led to a boom in the 1990s. However, the Uruguay economy slowed due to a devaluation of the Brazilian real in 1999, an outbreak of foot and mouth disease in 2001, and the collapse of the Argentinian economy in 2002. Unemployment peaked at almost 20 per cent, and nearly 40 per cent of people lived in poverty. Reform slowed and people opposed plans to privatize the state petroleum and water companies. The economy bounced back with growth reaching 7 per cent in 2006. Uruguay is regarded as safe and attractive for investors and more economically developed than most Latin American countries. It became the first computer software exporter in Latin America in 2005. Estancia tourism or agritourism is a new industry that has grown rapidly in recent years.

Government and politics

The two parties engaged in many battles in the 19th century are still slugging it out today in parliament. The Partido Colorado has been the ruling party for most of the country’s history. Partido Blanco has only been in power twice. The left-wing Broad Front, made up of various socialists, communists, democrats and former Tupamaros, won the 2004 elections. Colorado was a distant third with just 10 per cent of the vote. Transparency International regards Uruguay as Latin America’s least corrupt country. It has freer political and labor conditions than most Latin American countries and in 2007 was the first to legalize civil unions between different and same sex couples after five years together. The country was ranked 23rd on the 2008 democracy index, a measure of political freedom, and first in Latin America.

Transport and communication

Most passenger and freight movement in Uruguay is by road, although only 10 per cent are paved, including the highways and other roads between urban centers. The rail network was bought from Britain after World War II but has fallen out of use, except between Montevideo and San Jose, a distance of 60 miles. A hydrofoil operates between Montevideo and Buenos Aires in Argentina on the other side of the Rio de la Plata. Uruguay has over 115 mobile phones per 100 persons and one million internet users. The phone system is fully digitized and several attempts to privatize it have failed.

Ecuador

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aguardiente, airports, Amerindian, Andes Mountains, bananas, buses, Chimborazo, climate, cocoa, communication, Correa, culture, diversity, economy, Ecuador, Escuela Quitena, Galapagos Islands, geography, government, Guayaquil, history, Ibarra, Inca Empire, Mestizo, oil, Panama hats, people, politics, poverty, Quito, rail, rainfall, rainforest, roads, snow, soccer, South America, Spanish, transport, War of Independence, World Heritage Site, Yahuarcocha

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Ecuador is a small country located on the western side of South America on the Pacific Ocean. As its name suggests, the country is situated on the equator. It in one of only two South American countries that don’t border Brazil, the other being Chile. Its capital, Quito, is the least altered and best preserved of any city in Latin America and is a World Heritage Site. Ecuador is one of 18 megadiverse countries as named by the United Nations. Its constitution was renewed in 2008 and includes legally enforceable nature or ecosystem rights, the first in the world to do so. There are many other interesting facts about Ecuador.

Geography and climate

The country has several diverse geographic regions. The low lying coastal area has most of the plantation crops and the nation’s largest city, Guayaquil. Many mangroves have been destroyed by shrimp farming. Behind this coastal plain is the highlands region, featuring the Andes Mountains with their snow covered peaks year round, even on the equator. To the east is the thinly populated Amazon rainforest area occupying nearly half the country. You can drive through the temperate coastal area, the cold highlands, and the hot and humid rainforest all in one day. The Galapagos Islands, 620 miles off the coast, have the world’s largest tortoises. This is where Charles Darwin started developing his theory of natural selection. Ecuador’s Chimborazo, an inactive volcano, is the farthest point from the earth’s center due to the planet’s ovoidal shape.

History

Evidence of human occupation in Ecuador dates back 5,500 years. Various distinct civilizations arose and could be quite hostile towards one another and outsiders. At the battle of Yahuarcocha (meaning Blood Lake), thousands were butchered and thrown into the lake. The region came under the Inca Empire in 1463, and a civil war was raging at the time the Spaniards arrived in 1531. After the Ecuadorian War of Independence in 1820-1822, the territory became part of Gran Colombia before separating in 1830. Ecuador’s history has been marked by many periods of instability. War broke out between Ecuador and Peru in 1941, each country blaming the other for invading its territory. Tensions between the two countries continued, finally escalating into all out war in 1995. A peace agreement was signed in 1998.

People

About 57 per cent of Ecuador’s 13.6 million people are Mestizo or of mixed Spanish and indigenous descent. A further 24 per cent are Amerindian, 16 per cent are white, and 3 per cent are black. A major population shift from the highlands to the coastal areas occurred in the late nineteenth century when world demand for cocoa and other commodities rose. More recently, both immigration and emigration between Ecuador and many countries around the world have been high. More than 600,000 Colombians live in Ecuador, mostly illegally, escaping conflict in their own country. Many festivals and parades combine indigenous beliefs with Catholicism. About 38 per cent of the population live in poverty.

Culture

Panama hats originated in Ecuador in the nineteenth century. Like many other South American products, the hats were taken to Panama before being shipped around the world, and came to be known by their place of international sale. Ecuador’s food is diverse, varying between the regions. A national alcoholic beverage is ‘aguardiente,’ a spirit made from sugar cane. Another favorite is drinkable yoghurt which comes in many different fruit flavors. The most popular sport is soccer. When international matches above 2,500 meters were banned in 2007, there was uproar as Quito and a number of other South American venues are above this altitude, but the ruling stood. The country is well known for its art, especially the Escuela Quitena style which can be seen in old churches in Quito.

Economy

Ecuador’s economy depends largely on agricultural and mining exports. Oil accounts for a third of government revenue and 40 per cent of export earnings. The country is the world’s largest banana exporter. An economic crisis emerged in the late 1990s due to falling oil prices, deterioration in the world economy, and El Nino damage. The situation was exacerbated by Ecuador’s expansionary economic policy of large fiscal deficits and low interest rates. Higher oil prices in the early 2000s assisted recovery, although debt remained high. In December 2008, President Correa, who holds an economics degree, decided not to make an interest payment on the nation’s global bonds, declaring it ‘illegitimate.’

Government and politics

Ecuador has been a republic since 1830 and was led by a series of authoritarian rulers. Populist politicians emerged in the 1930s and 1940s. Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra was president five times but was ousted by the army each time, except his fourth term from 1952 to 1956. He never gave up, once stating, “Give me a balcony and I will become president.” The army finally removed him altogether in 1972 and he was exiled to Argentina. Ecuador returned to democracy in 1979 but volatility remained. The political voice of the indigenous people emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, while both elite and leftist groups have continued to try and destabilize the government.

Transport and communication

The country has 27,000 miles of roads, with only 15 per cent paved. National highways connect the major cities, although quality can vary, especially in the mountainous areas. Intercity buses are extensive and popular. Ecuador has 600 miles of rail, but neglect and El Nino events have taken their toll. By 2008, only 10 per cent of the lines were still operational, basically the tourist trains. The country has 418 airports, ranking it nineteenth in the world. Ecuador has 75 mobile phones per 100 persons.

Colombia

Tags

airports, Amazon Rainforest, Amerindian, Andes Mountains, Athens of South America, Bogota, climate, coca, cocaine, Colombia, communication, Conservative Party, diversity, economy, El Nino, emeralds, exports, Gachala Emerald, geography, government, Gran Colombia, history, homicide, inequality, La Violencia, Liberal Party, Mestizo, mulatto, natural resources, Pacific Ring of Fire, people, politics, radio, rail, rainfall, Republic of Colombia, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, road, South America, Southern Oscillation, Spaniards, television, temperature, Thousand Days War, transport, volcanoes, Whyuu, zambo

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Colombia is in the top four megadiverse countries in terms of diversity of species, along with Brazil, Indonesia and South Africa, according to the United Nations. The country is ethnically very diverse too. It is famous for its cocaine trade, producing 70 per cent of the world’s coca production. For years, Colombia had the world’s highest homicide rate, although it has eased since 2002. Its capital, Bogota, has many universities and libraries and is often called “The Athens of South America.” There are many other interesting facts about Colombia.

Geography

It occupies the northwest corner of South America and is the continent’s only country to border both the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean (at the Caribbean Sea). The Andes Mountains dominate the landscape and are the location of most of the nation’s major cities. At an altitude of 8,700 feet, Bogota is the world’s third highest major city after La Paz of Bolivia and Quito of Ecuador, although it is much larger than either of these cities. To the east of the mountains is tropical grassland and in the southeast the Amazon Rainforest. The country is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire and has 15 major volcanoes.

Climate

Colombia’s climate varies from hot and humid in the Amazon jungle to very cold in the mountainous areas with permanent snowy peaks despite its location near the equator. Much of the country has two wet seasons, corresponding to spring and autumn. The Pacific coast is one of the world’s highest rainfall areas, while over 200 inches often falls in the southeast. The country is in the El Nino-Southern Oscillation path, resulting in variable rainfall and severe flooding along the western side. Bogota has a cool climate that hardly varies through the year. Average maximum temperatures by month vary from 63 to 67 degrees Fahrenheit, while average minimums range from 41 to 47 degrees.

History

The territory of what is now Colombia has been occupied by indigenous people for 12,000 years. Their lives were thrown into upheaval by the arrival of the Spaniards in 1499, who set about conquering and colonizing the area. One group refusing to be subjugated was the Whyuu people who were unusual in that they used horses and firearms. In 1718, the governor described them as “barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law and without a king.” After independence in 1819, Gran Colombia stretched over much of the northern part of the continent and included Panama. The Republic of Colombia dates from 1886, still with Panama which separated in 1903.

People

Most of Colombia’s 45 million people live in the mountainous areas and on the Caribbean coast. Three-quarters of the population are of mixed ancestry. About 58 per cent of residents are mestizo, meaning mixed European and Amerindian background. A further 14 per cent are mulatto or of European and African descent, and 3 per cent are zambo or of Amerindian and African ancestry. Of the remaining quarter, 20 per cent are white, 4 per cent are black and just 1 per cent are Amerindian. Colombia has the third largest number of Spanish speaking people outside Spain, after Mexico and the US. With the protracted internal fighting, more than four million of its population are regarded as internally displaced persons, among the world’s highest number. Ironically, the nation is ranked sixth by the 2009 Happy Planet Index, down from second place in 2006.

Economy

Despite the internal conflict, Colombia’s economy has grown strongly, averaging four per cent annually from the 1970s through to the 1990s. In 2007, it grew by eight per cent. Its stock exchange index jumped from a starting base of 1,000 points in 2001 to 7,300 points by late 2008. However, inequality is high, and almost a quarter of government spending is repaying debt. The country has an abundance of natural resources, and leading exports include petroleum, coal, and gold. Colombia is the world’s leading supplier of emeralds. The 858 carat Gachala Emerald, one of the largest emeralds in the world, was found in Colombia in 1967.

Government and politics

Colombia has long had a constitutional government. Its two major parties, the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, were founded in the 1840s and are among the oldest in the Americas. The two have fought many battles, including the Thousand Days War of 1899-1902, which started over allegations of electoral fraud, and La Violencia, a series of skirmishes from the late 1940s and lasting about a decade. Battles were continuous from the 1960s and escalated in the 1990s due to the cocaine trade. The political situation has been less volatile in recent years, with sharp falls in the number of murders and kidnappings, as well as a weakening of the terrorist group, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia.

Transport and communication

Two-thirds of cargo in Colombia is transported by road, and most of the roads are now paved. Rail has been neglected with passenger numbers shrinking from over five million in 1972 to 160,000 in 2005. The country has nearly 1,000 airports, ranking it eighth in the world, although only 107 have paved runways. Waterways are also well developed, but guerrillas control those in the south. Lonely Planet regards Colombia as one of the top 10 destinations. The country has more than 500 radio stations, 60 television stations, and 12 million internet users. There are about 75 mobile phones per 100 persons.

Brazil

Tags

airports, Amazon Basin, Amazon Rainforest, Amerindians, Brazil, Brazilian Carnival, BRIC, bus, Catholic, Christ the Redeemer, climate, communication, constitution, Constitutional Revolution, courts, culture, Dom Pedro, economy, ethnic, feijoada, geography, government, history, Juscelino Kubitschek, New Seven Wonders of the World, Pantanal, people, piracy, political parties, politics, Portuguese, poverty, races, radio, rail, rainfall, religion, Rio de Janeiro, road, South America, temperature, transport

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

With an area of 3.3 million square miles, Brazil is the largest country in the world located in the tropics. It covers a large part of eastern and central South America and is bordered by 10 countries, which is every nation on the continent except Chile and Ecuador. This number is exceeded only by Russia with 14. Brazil is famous for its beaches and soccer. There are many other interesting facts about this country.

Geography

Due to its size, Brazil’s terrain is quite diverse. The semiarid north-east contrasts with the Pantanal region in the central west which is the world’s largest wetlands area and where 80 per cent of the land is flooded in the wet season. Nearly half the country is occupied by the Amazon Rainforest, extending across the north. This region has the greatest biological diversity in the world with an estimated four million plant and animal species. The Amazon Basin has a fifth of the world’s fresh water and is one of eight major drainage systems in the country, all emptying into the Atlantic. The Amazon River carries more than ten times as much water as the Mississippi.

Climate

Five climatic types are identified in Brazil: equatorial, tropical, highland tropical, temperate, and semiarid. The equatorial climate of the rainforest area includes rain and warm temperatures throughout the year, with rainfall usually exceeding 80 inches annually. Temperature extremes are more common in the temperate zones in the south and can exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit. The south also has cooler temperatures, sometimes with frosts and snow in higher areas. The semiarid north-east has less than 30 inches of rain a year, most of it falling over 3-5 months.

History

Amerindians have lived in the region for thousands of years. About three million lived there in 2,000 nations and tribes when Portuguese colonization began in the sixteenth century. Portugal made Rio de Janeiro its capital from 1808 to 1815 due to the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Brazil achieved independence in 1822 with Dom Pedro its first emperor. The country became a republic in 1889 and periods of military rule were interspersed with democracy of sorts. Economic progress was fast-tracked during Juscelino Kubitschek’s presidency from 1956 to 1961 with the slogan ‘fifty years development in five.’ Critics called it ‘forty years inflation in four.’

People

Brazil’s population of 190 million people is made up of many races and ethnic groups. Nearly half the population is white and a further 42 per cent are pardo, or brown, describing those of mixed white, black, and Amerindian descent. A further 7 per cent are black, 0.5 per cent are Asian, and 0.4 per cent are Amerindian. Except for the US, the black population of 13 million is the largest in a country outside Africa. Brazil has the largest number of people of Italian heritage outside Italy and the largest number of Japanese descent outside Japan. After the US, it has the second highest number of people of German background outside Germany.

Culture

The culture of Brazil is strongly Portuguese but with significant Amerindian and African influences as well as Spanish, Italian, German, Arabic, and Japanese, making it a multicultural society. The country’s national dish is whole feijoada, a stew made of meat and beans. The Brazilian Carnival is an annual celebration held just before Ash Wednesday with spectacular parades and other events throughout the country. Nearly three-quarters of the population are Roman Catholic. Christ the Redeemer statue, perched high on a mountain above Rio de Janeiro, is one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. Brazil has won the World Cup of soccer a record five times.

Economy

Along with China, India and Russia, Brazil is regarded as one of the four large emerging economies known as BRICs, an acronym from the first letter of the name of each country. It is already the world’s ninth largest economy based on purchasing power and has an annual output of US$2 trillion. Despite this, 23.5 per cent of Brazilians live below the poverty line. The nation received a $30 billion IMF loan in 2002 and was able to repay it by 2005, a year early. Brazil is currently spending $300 billion over four years to upgrade its roads, ports, and power plants.

Government and politics

Brazil was a colony before becoming an empire and then a republic. It has been under military rule from time to time and is currently a democracy. There are 15 political parties in Congress and politicians often switch parties. To become a judge, lawyers compete in an examination. Superior court justices are appointed for life and all judges must retire by 70. The country has had seven constitutions, starting in 1824, two years after independence. Its second constitution in 1891 didn’t allow women or illiterates to vote. It was canceled in 1930 and Brazil had no constitution. However, the Constitutional Revolution in 1932 finally resulted in a new one in 1934 which included women’s suffrage.

Transport and communication

Brazil has an enormous number of airports, with over 4,000, second only to the US. It has extensive rail and road networks, although only 5.5 per cent of its roads are paved. For tourists traveling into the country by bus, it is much cheaper to buy a ticket in another South American country to the border, walk across it, and buy another ticket on the Brazilian side, rather than buy an international ticket. Piracy remains a significant problem offshore in the Atlantic. The country has 1,800 radio stations, third behind the US and France. There are 50 million internet users, placing it sixth in the world.

Bolivia

Tags

agriculture, airports, Amazon Basin, Amerindian, Andes Mountains, Aymara, Bolivia, Charcas, climate, communication, economy, geography, government, history, Inca Empire, inflation, La Paz, Lago Titicaca, literacy, Litoral, Mestizo, people, politics, Potosi, Quechua, radio, rail, rainforest, religion, roads, Simon Bolivar, South America, Spanish, television, temperature, tin, transport, Upper Peru, Victor Paz Estenssoro

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Bolivia is a landlocked country that is a place of many contrasts. It is the poorest nation in South America, yet it is rich in natural resources. It is the highest, most rugged, and most isolated country in the southern hemisphere. It has some of the coldest and hottest weather on the planet and can be among the windiest, driest, and most swampy of places. More than 60 per cent of the population is indigenous, the highest in South America. There are many other interesting facts about Bolivia.

Geography

The country hasn’t always been landlocked. It lost Litoral, a coastal department, to Chile in 1879 in the War of the Pacific, which was fought between Chile on the one side and Bolivia and Peru on the other. The Andes Mountains run through the western part of the country, while the east includes part of the Amazon Basin and its rainforests. In the southwest is the largest salt flat in the world. La Paz is the highest capital city in the world, situated 11,900 feet above sea level. The country has the world’s highest navigable lake, Lago Titicaca, at 12,500 feet.

Climate

Bolivia experiences large differences in temperatures between regions, but not so much between seasons in the one location. Despite its tropical setting, temperatures in the highlands can fall below freezing at night and snow is common in many areas. In the lower altitudes, winter temperatures can be quite pleasant. The rainforest area is very hot and wet for much of the year. La Paz, in the highlands, has an average maximum temperature range through the year of just 63 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit and an average minimum of 34 to 43 degrees.

History

The region has been constantly inhabited for over 2,000 years, initially by the Aymara people. It was part of the Inca Empire which ruled much of the western part of the continent from the thirteenth century. The Spanish conquered the area in the sixteenth century and it was known as Upper Peru or Charcas. The city of Potosi became a wealthy mining area and had the largest population in the New World at one time. After fighting the Spaniards for 16 years, the region became a republic in 1825 named after Simon Bolivar, its first president. The country has suffered frequently from political instability and economic problems throughout its history.

People

Most of the population is Amerindian, including about 30 per cent who speak Quechua and 25 per cent who use the Aymara language. Around 30 per cent are Mestizo, who are of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry, and 10 per cent are Caucasian, mainly of Spanish descent. The main religion is Roman Catholic, the faith of 78 per cent of residents. Two-thirds of the population live in poverty. Half have Spanish as their first language. About 90 per cent of children go to school at some stage but often only for a year or even less. Illiteracy is still high, especially in rural areas.

Economy

The country has the lowest level of economic output per head of all South American nations, despite plentiful natural resources. Inflation reached 14,000 per cent in the early 1980s. This was followed by a huge fall in the price of tin in the 1980s, its main mineral, and the withdrawal of western financial support after the end of the Cold War in 1991. There have been plenty of economic reforms, including private ownership and encouragement of foreign investment but this has often been overshadowed by protest against reform, political instability, and racial tension. Agriculture remains the largest industry although only 3 per cent of the land is arable and permanent crops take up just 0.2 per cent.

Government and politics

Bolivia is a republic with a long history of political unrest. Between independence in 1825 and 1981, it had 193 coups and countercoups, with each new government lasting an average of 10 months. Relative political stability in recent decades is often attributed to Victor Paz Estenssoro, who ran for president eight times, succeeding four times. His intermittent presidency stretched over a period of more than 37 years.

Transport and communication

Accessibility varies due to the country’s terrain. This makes flying a popular option. Bolivia had 1,009 airports in 2008, ranking it seventh in the world, although only 16 of these have paved runways. The country has 2,200 miles of rail, and 39,000 miles of roads but just 6 per cent of them are paved. It has more than 6,000 miles of commercially navigable waterways, putting it fourteenth in the world, plus the use of the Paraguay River to the Atlantic Ocean. Bolivia has no shortage of television stations, boasting 48 of them, and has 251 radio stations. It has more than three million mobile phones among its population of 10 million.

Daylight saving time practices around the world

Tags

Africa, Arizona, Asia, Australia, Belgium, Canada, daylight saving, daylight saving time, DST, Europe, France, Hawaii, Netherlands, New Zealand, Queensland, South America, summer time, Tasmania, United Kingdom, United States, Western Australia, World War I, World War II

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone; written in 2008, updated in 2013)

About 70 countries around the world use daylight saving time (DST), advancing their clocks one hour in the spring and turning them back in autumn. Changeover time in most countries is the wee small hours of Sunday morning, which causes the least disruption to businesses and households alike.

Virtually all European countries have daylight saving time. The European Community countries now have coordinated DST, starting on the last Sunday in March since 1981 and ending on the last Sunday in October since 1998. The only country not to use it is Iceland where it gets dark so late and light so early in summer that DST would be of limited use. Iceland last had DST in 1967.

Most of Europe had DST during World War I, especially Western Europe. DST finished in many European countries after 1919 or 1920, although some kept it through the entire interwar period, such as the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, as did parts of Canada and the United States. Nearly all of Europe adopted DST during World War II, some not turning back their clocks at all for several years. Two hours of daylight saving in summer, called double daylight saving time, and one hour in winter was common practice. Daylight saving time was often called War Time during this period. Various countries in other parts of the world had DST during World War II.

After the war, some countries stopped DST, although a number continued with it for a few years before abandoning it.  The only places to have had DST in the entire postwar period are parts of the United States and Canada. No European country has had it throughout this period. The closest is the United Kingdom, which has had it in all years except 1968-1971 when it switched to Central European Time (GMT+1) and consequently didn’t have separate DST. A large number of countries resumed daylight saving time in the 1970s and early 1980s, especially at the time of the energy crises.

In the United States, DST was a state and local issue, with the result that some areas had it and other didn’t. During a train or road trip of a few hours, a person could pass through a number of different time zones. There were even instances of people living on opposite sides of a river being on different times. This caused various problems when family members went to work or school or the shops on the other side of the river. On one occasion, different workers in a single building were on two separate times, as some businesses recognised DST and others didn’t. A similar problem still happens at the southern end of Australia’s Gold Coast area where the state of New South Wales has DST but the state of Queensland doesn’t have it.

Daylight saving time became a federal issue in the United States in 1966 with the Uniform Time Act. Since then, nearly all states have had DST. Exceptions are Arizona except the Navajo Nation, and Hawaii. The only occasion Hawaii had DST was in 1933, for three weeks from 30 April to 21 May, although some sources say it lasted just one day and was abandoned on 1 May. DST is less useful in tropical areas as day and night are of similar length. Indiana has observed DST since 2006. In Alaska and Florida, there are moves to try and end DST. The period of DST each year in the United States was extended by a month under the Energy Policy Act of 2005. It now lasts almost two-thirds of the year, from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November.

All of Canada except Saskatchewan province observes DST, including those areas within the Arctic Circle where daylight lasts 24 hours for at least part of the summer. The whole of Saskatchewan moved to the Central time zone in 1966, which effectively means it has year round DST. Similarly, time zone boundaries for many countries have changed considerably over the years and are still occurring. Most changes tend to be in a easterly direction and are often for the purpose of saving daylight. This results in a skewing of zones and is evident in places like the United States, Canada, southern South America, Western Europe, parts of Africa, as well as Russia, China and Mongolia. On top of this, most of these places also have DST, although China stopped in 1991 and Mongolia in 2006.

While the use or non-use of DST is quite settled in Europe and North America, this isn’t the case in Asia. About seven Asian countries currently observe DST. Iran had it from 1978 to 1980 and from 1991 to 2005, and again from 2008. Iraq used it from 1982 to 2007. Israel had DST for most of the period 1940 to 1957, 1974, 1975, and all years since 1985. At the end of DST, until 2012 clocks were moved back on the Sunday between the two holy days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, whose dates differ each year. From 2013, clocks go back on the last Sunday in October. Georgia had DST in World War II and for most years since 1981, until 2004. Japan only used it from 1948 to 1951 but moves to resurrect it have gained momentum since the late 1990s. South Korea has hardly used DST either. Taiwan hasn’t used it since 1980. Many of the previous USSR countries have abandoned it. Pakistan had it in 2002, 2008 and 2009 due to high fuel costs.

Mexico observed DST during World War II. The whole country, including its tropical areas, has had DST since 1996, except Sonara from 1999 due to its trade with Arizona. Baja California has had it for several decades. In Central America, most countries have used it at some stage, although none use it at the moment. Guatemala and Nicaragua have had it sporadically since 1973, when energy conservation demands it. In the West Indies, the Bahamas and Cuba have used DST since the mid 1960s.

In South America, Argentina and Brazil have opted in and then out of DST six and five times respectively. Some states in Brazil have used it each year since 1985, while certain Argentinian provinces resumed it in 2007 to 2009. Uruguay has the world record for the most episodes of DST with eleven: 1923-24 to 1925-26, 1933-34 to 1938-39, 1939-40 to 1942-43, 1959-1960, 1965-1970, 1972, 1974-1976, 1977-78, 1979-80, 1987-88 to 1992-93, and 2004-05 to present. This country narrowly shades Portugal who has had ten episodes of DST. Energy saving considerations play a major role in most of these countries. Other South American countries currently using DST include Chile and Paraguay.

Most of Africa doesn’t observe DST and it is the only continent where most countries have never adopted it. Egypt had it during World War II and again from 1957 until 2010. Algeria used it in both world wars and for a few odd years in the 1970s. Libya has had it on and off, including from 2012. Namibia has had it since 1994 and Morocco since 2008. A handful of other African countries have had DST for a period before abandoning it. South Africa used it for two years in the 1940s but not since.

In Australia, Tasmania started DST in 1916. The rest had it in 1917, for a few years in World War II and, in most states, since 1971. Western Australia underwent a trial period of DST from 2006-07 to 2008-09, but hasn’t continued with it. Queensland hasn’t observed DST since 1992, although it comes up as a political issue every spring. Most residents in the state’s populated south-east want it while the rest don’t. New Zealand has had it every year since 1974-75. Fiji used it in 1998-2000 and since 2009, and Samoa since 2011. DST is used in Antarctica by certain stations if their home country has it.

In summary, nearly all of Europe observes daylight saving time whereas usage varies elsewhere. It is less common in tropical areas where day and night don’t vary much in length or in high latitude regions where summer nights are very short. A large number of countries have started and then finished DST a number of times, or tend to experiment with it, often when energy costs rise. It remains a contentious issue in many parts of the world.

Daylight saving time explained

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Africa, America, Asia, Australia, Benjamin Franklin, Britain, Canada, China, daylight saving, ebook, Europe, George Hudson, Germany, London, New South Wales, New York, New Zealand, Paris, Portugal, South America, South Australia, Tasmania, The Waste of Daylight, Uniform Time Act, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Victoria, William Willett

Several Australian states, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania, as well as the Australian Capital Territory, start daylight saving tomorrow, 4 October.

I’m writing a book on the history of daylight saving time around the world. It will be published as an ebook next year, 2016, the 100th anniversary of the first use of daylight saving on a national basis in European countries.

Meanwhile, here’s an article explaining daylight saving and its pros and cons that I wrote for the Helium writing site, now gone …

Daylight saving time is where clocks are turned forward, usually by one hour, in the spring and turned back again in autumn or fall. This gives an extra hour of daylight in the evening and less daylight in the early morning during the warmer months. Daylight isn’t actually saved but transferred from one end of the day to the other. Thus “daylight shifting” would be a more accurate term than daylight saving.

Why do we go through this process? The main reason is to save fuel, although studies vary as to how much is saved. Later sunrise and sunset times usually save electricity as artificial light is needed for an hour less in the evening. It also means a reduction in road accidents and assaults as fewer people are traveling home after dark. There is time after dinner to mow the lawn, go for a walk or bike ride, play sport, or shop before nightfall. Daylight saving time is favored by retail, tourist and other businesses as it usually means an increase in sales. These are some of the reasons about 70 countries around the world use daylight saving time in the summer months.

Not everyone likes daylight saving time. It is favored by most people living in large cities. However, those in regional and rural areas are generally against it, especially in farming communities. Farm work starts at dawn regardless of what the clock says, and to have schools, shops, factories and markets start an hour earlier in real time gives farmers an hour less to do their morning tasks. Also, in tropical areas, the benefits of daylight saving time are few, as day and night do not vary much in length, and fuel savings are minimal or non-existent.

The concept of daylight saving time initially came from America’s Benjamin Franklin in the 18th century. He was out for an early morning walk in London in the summer of 1770 when he saw no shops open and few people around despite the sun being up several hours. He felt it odd that people complained of the cost of candles, yet went to bed late and got up late. In Paris in 1784, he got home one night at 3am and didn’t realize his shutters hadn’t been closed. He woke at 6am to the sun pouring in through the window. He wrote a letter, “An economical project for diminishing the cost of light”, to the Journal of Paris, calculating that the city could save millions each year by people going to bed much earlier. It was largely a whimsical article and the idea didn’t go any further at that time. He never suggested altering the clocks and didn’t use the term “daylight saving time” or similar.

New Zealander George Hudson presented two papers, in 1895 and 1898, proposing that clocks be put forward two hours in the summer months. He mentioned cricket, gardening, cycling and other outdoor activities as the main benefits. There was a fair amount of interest, especially in Christchurch. It is quite likely that other people proposed the idea of daylight saving time in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The champion of daylight saving time was English builder William Willett. He was out riding his horse in Petts Wood, Kent early one summer’s morning in 1905 when he noticed most houses still had their blinds shut despite broad daylight. It was much the same scenario as Franklin’s morning stroll 135 years earlier. The difference was that Willett decided to do something serious about it to try and rectify the problem. He published a booklet, “The Waste of Daylight”, in July 1907. He wrote of the advantages of extra recreation and exercise and estimated the annual savings to Great Britain and Ireland to be £2.5 million a year.

His idea was controversial from the start. It had a great deal of support but a lot of opposition too. Businesses and banks favored it, some giving as a reason that clerks could play cricket after work. It would reduce the need for artificial light, saving businesses and households considerable sums. The medical fraternity supported him, saying the plan would be good for people’s eyesight, rickets, anemia and general health, and would lessen the use of licensed houses.

Resistance was just as widespread. Farmers were among the most vocal. They worked from dawn to dusk and couldn’t adjust their hours simply because the clock showed a different time. The cows were ready at dawn and grass couldn’t be harvested with dew on it as the machinery wouldn’t work. International traders complained their trading times would be out of kilter, especially with American companies. Operating times of stock exchanges in London and New York overlapped by one hour, but with daylight saving time in Britain it would be zero. Scientists and astronomers were against the scheme, claiming it was difficult to compile data from continuously recording meteorological instruments. Parliament and the railways were divided on the issue.

Willett spent seven years and thousands of dollars trying to build up support. While the British kept heatedly debating daylight saving time in parliament, Germany quietly introduced it on 30 April 1916 to conserve energy for the war effort. Several other European countries started it on the same day. The United Kingdom finally brought it in on 21 May. By mid year most of Europe had daylight saving.

The situation in America was different as it still wasn’t directly involved in the war. However, there was plenty of campaigning and support for daylight saving time. Retailers and industrialists liked the idea. The burgeoning leisure and retail industries saw the value of an extra hour of daylight for baseball games, amusement parks and department stores. Car manufacturers supported it too, as it would give people an extra hour for motoring before nightfall. Fierce opposition came from farmers and the railways. The United States joined the war on April 6, 1917 after its merchant ships came under heavy attack from the Germans. A daylight saving bill became law on March 31, 1918.

World War I finished later that year and most places abandoned daylight saving time after 1919 or 1920. A few countries kept it for the entire interwar period, including the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of Canada and the United States. Keen to save fuel, many countries adopted it again during World War II. Some didn’t turn back their clocks at all for several years in the 1940s. Two hours of daylight saving in summer, called double daylight saving time, and one hour in winter was popular. Daylight saving time was often called War Time during this period.

After the war, nearly everyone soon abandoned daylight saving time. Parts of America and Canada are the only areas to have had daylight saving time in the entire postwar period. The United Kingdom has had it in all years except 1968-1971 when it switched to Central European Time (GMT+1) and consequently didn’t have separate daylight saving time.

In the United States, daylight saving time was a state and local issue. Some areas had it and other didn’t. On a train or road trip of a few hours, a person could pass through several time zones. People could live in one zone and work or go to school in another. On one occasion, workers belonging to different companies in a single building were on two separate times. Daylight saving time became a federal issue in 1966 with the Uniform Time Act. Since then, the whole country has had daylight saving time except Arizona (apart from the Navajo Nation) and Hawaii, with Indiana making the move in 2005.

Most of Europe resumed daylight saving time in the 1970s and early 1980s, especially at the time of the energy crises. Many countries in Central and South America, the Middle East and Asia have or have had it, including China who used it from 1986 to 1991. Only a handful of African countries have daylight saving time. The 70 or so countries that currently use daylight saving time are mainly the advanced economies in the northern hemisphere, although there are plenty of others.

Daylight saving time remains as controversial as it was when first practised early last century. People either seem to like it or hate it. Some countries have opted in and out of daylight saving time on a number of occasions. Uruguay leads the way, having had eleven episodes, closely followed by Portugal with ten.